Familiar with world epic traditions, Biebuyck was convinced that the lugano bore striking similarities to classical heroic epics. Eager to document a performance, he was introduced to Kambala Mubila, one of the last remaining specialists in the genre. Biebuyck transcribed the performance, assisted by high-ranking Bami who helped interpret the text.

The Performance

Kambala Mubila, along with his apprentice and four percussionists, performed before a captivated audience of young and old men and women, initiates and non-initiates. For many young villagers, this was their first encounter with such a narrative, as the shifts brought about by colonization had led to the decline of its performance. Encouraged by the crowd’s enthusiasm, Kambala delivered an extraordinary multi-day performance.

Kambala’s apprentice played a crucial role as an engaged listener, prompting or supporting the bard when he hesitated or momentarily forgot a passage. The four percussionists provided the metrical cadence of the performance by beating a percussion beam in rhythmic patterns. The audience also participated by encouraging the bard with exclamations of interest. Kambala adjusted his performance to accommodate Biebuyck’s transcription, sometimes repeating words or providing explanations. The final transcription comprised around 200 handwritten pages in the original Kilega, with annotations in Kiswahili, Lingala, and Flemish. The manuscript is now preserved at the National Anthropological Archives of the Smithsonian Institution.[1]

The Lugano as an Oral Literary Genre

For the Lega and the related Bembe, the lugano represents a genre unto its own, independent of other forms such as tales, riddles, proverbs, songs, judicial statements, genealogical recitations, and oaths. A distinctive super-genre that weaves together multiple literary forms, it is defined by its monumental scope, intricate structure, and profound poetic depth. From a linguistic and prosodic standpoint, the version recorded by Biebuyck is a masterpiece—a testament to the bard’s erudition and extraordinary mastery of his own language, in particular, his profound command of grammar, syntax, and tonal patterns, and his in-depth knowledge of vocabulary, formulaic expressions, and song. A translation alone cannot fully convey his adept use of alliteration, onomatopoeia, syntactic reduplication, direct and indirect discourse.

The Hero: Mubila

Mubila, the lugano’s protagonist, is a restless traveler engaged in extraordinary events and encounters that shape the progression of the narrative. He is often accompanied by his favorite wife, the bold and formidable Kabungulu, who vanquishes enemies with a mere sweep of her loincloth (B. Biebuyck 2023). In addition to magical objects, he also relies on his Baya, an inner voice that guides, advises, and informs him. The action unfolds in a vast, deep rainforest, crisscrossed by rivers, swamps, and narrow trails, and populated with abundant wildlife, towering trees, lianas, and shrubs. The forest itself is often depicted as bizarre, enigmatic, and inhabited by anthropomorphic and theriomorphic beings—yet these entities are neither gods, ogres, nor ghosts. Mubila engages with a diverse array of male and female characters, as well as animals, anthropomorphized plants and creatures, and imaginary beings. His encounters often result in battles, where verbal exchanges are just as crucial as physical combat. These confrontations shape the conflicts, heighten the dramatic tension, and drive much of the action. They are filled with threats, insults, and challenges; warnings and accusations; heated arguments and sharp criticisms; as well as self-praise and bold boasts.

Mubila represents the perfect anti-hero. Arrogant, intolerant, and boastful, he possesses an aggressive and unrestrained temperament. Consumed by hatred and vengeance, he resorts to deception, argumentation, and conflict. Fully aware of his own nature, he acknowledges, “I have war-filled eyes.” He stands in stark contrast to the values upheld by the Bwami association, which prioritizes generosity, moderation, temperance, nonviolence, and social solidarity.

Conclusion

To a large extent, the Mubila narrative reflects pre-Bwami Lega society—a society composed of chiefless clans and lineages, closely or distantly related, yet frequently torn apart by internecine feuds and warfare—a time of migration, movement, encounters with foreign groups, feuds, warfare, and absorption. Mubila symbolizes the feuding leaders of his era, embodying the violent struggles driven by competition and disputes over hunting rights, kinship seniority, women, witchcraft, and sorcery. These conflicts defined the early history of the Lega, a period marked by discord and rivalry before the unifying, peace-promoting Bwami association emerged.

[1]   The original Lega text, together with a French translation, will be published by the Classiques Africains in 2025, edited by Daniel P. Biebuyck in collaboration with Brunhilde Biebuyck and Germain M’Beku.